Early modern writers acted upon the basic rational, social, and individualistic impulses during the 16th century religious reformation and thus radicalized intellectual, theological, and philosophical issues concerning authority in a manner that traveled far beyond the intentions of the original reformers – who were merely dedicated to the adjustment of religious practice and not the actual modification of basic belief, doctrine, or theology.
John Locke, for example, presses toward Christianity as superior religion, but only if an individual uses his or her own god-given reason to discover as much. Individual and institutional authoritarianism will not do in the mind of Locke. Individuals are completely free to meander their way through reality’s mire of fallacious opinion and ridiculous superstition. Locke, in “Reasonableness of Christianity,” writes concerning the Christian’s need for authority and where to find it in its purist form:
“If there was not, ’tis plain, there was need of one to give us such a morality; such a law, which might be the sure guide of those who had a desire to go right: and, if they had a mind, need not mistake their duty; but might be certain when they had performed, when failed in it. Such a law of morality, Jesus Christ hath given us in the New Testament; but by the latter of these ways, by revelation. We have from him a full and sufficient rules for our direction, and conformable to that of reason” (Locke 4).
There is, according to Locke, no authority for the religious individual save God and Jesus Christ. The acceptable authority – divinely revealed or otherwise – must also be conformable to human reason. This concept is absolutely conducive to Locke’s dedicated opposition to authoritarianism. In fact, he himself makes the issue clear: “And such an one as this out of the New Testament, I think the world never had, nor can anyone say is any where else to be found” (Locke 4).
So Locke, driven by the same 16th century reformation impulse toward individualism and freedom from overbearing institutions and religious lawmakers surpasses it, by a great deal, by even the most conservative of estimations.
Matthew Tindal is another modern writer who exhibits the same driving, post-reformation characteristics of Locke. Tindal, a Christian Deist, writes against exclusively revealed knowledge (revelation) in “Christianity as Old as the Creation,” and, as his title obviously suggests, posits that the revealed truth of Christianity has been known naturally by individuals since the beginning of the created world. This fact, therefore, would eliminate the powerful authoritarian institutions and individuals who gather power from peddling so-called “exclusive revelation” to the masses. Tindal, in fact, does not hesitate to say so literally and bluntly:
“I grant you this is the Design of Religion; but have not the Ecclesiasticks [sic] in most Places entirely defeated this design, and so far debas’d [sic] Human Nature, as to render it unsociable, fierce, and cruel? Have they not made external revelation the Pretence of filling the Christian World with Animosity, Hatred, Persecution, Ruin and Destruction; in order to get an absolute Dominion over the Consciences, Properties and Persons of the Laity?” (Tindal 32-33).
Mathew Tindal clearly radicalized the same impulse Locke gripped: namely, the reasonable rejection of ecclesiastic and religious authority.
Yet another example of this modern literary tendency can be seen in the work of Voltaire. His own post-reformation impulses can be clearly viewed in his work in “The Ecclesiastical Ministry,” wherein he defines what exactly the role for such a ministry ought to be.
Voltaire begins quickly, framing the institution of religion as an entity which “exists only to keep mankind in order, and to make men merit the goodness of God by their virtue” (Voltaire 1). He goes on, writing:
“Everything in a religion which does not tend towards this goal must be considered foreign or dangerous. Instruction, exhortation, menaces of pains to come, promises of immortal beatitude, prayers, counsels, spiritual help are the only means ecclesiastics may use to try to make men virtuous here below, and happy for eternity. All other mean are repugnant to the liberty of reason, to the nature of the soul, to the inalterable rights of the conscience, to the essence of religion and of the ecclesiastical ministry, to all the rights of the sovereign” (Voltaire 1).
Voltaire continues on in this work carefully condemning all ecclesiastics which attempt to travel beyond their reasonable boundaries and/or roles. He, as do Locke and Tindal, relies heavily upon reason to not only substantiate his position concerning individual and institutional authoritarianism, religious or otherwise, but also to debunk that of the ecclesiastics, who lost much of it during the 16th century.
These early modern writers gathered fuel from the same underground cistern tapped by the various reformations of the 16th century. People were generally growing weary of the Church and its incredible power to affect almost every aspect of life and living. Individuals such as Locke, Tindal, and Voltaire simply used this fuel to drive a bit further than those involved in early reformations were prepared or willing to go. The work of these early modern writers tended to affect Christianity in deeper and more serious ways than did early reformations of mere practice. Perhaps, just perhaps, this is the reason early espousers of reformation only journey so far? Then again, maybe those reformers wanted to preserve institutional and individual authoritarianism?
Primary Works Cited:
Locke, John, ed. The Reasonableness of Christianity. Lancaster, PA: Grade A Notes, 2006.
Tindal, Matthew, ed. Christianity as Old as the Creation. Lancaster, PA: Grade A Notes, 2006.
Voltaire, ed. The Ecclesiastical Ministry. Lancaster, PA: Grade A Notes, 2006.
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